Race and the Death Penalty free essay sample

A look at how race influences decisions concerning the death penalty. This paper presents an in depth examination of the death penalty and the racial influences on the matter. The author argues that the death penalty is administered in a racially disproportionate manner and provides proof of this accusation. Included is a brief overview of other debates around the topic such as moral grounding and fairness. It is hard to understand how anyone could not view the death penalty as morally problematic, although clearly many Americans do not view the practice as morally objectionable or there would not be so many advocates of the practice. One of the most problematic of all aspects of the death penalty as it is imposed in the United States is that is administered in a racially disproportionate manner.

Islam and Religion Essay

Islam and Religion Essay Islam and Religion Essay How does religion contribute to conflict in the Middle East? PURPOSE/THESIS I have chosen to prepare this project because I am concerned why so much conflict has happened over religion in the Middle East. The three major religions were birthed there so you would think it would be a little bit less tense for things about religion. Through research, I will inform try to motivate the reader to feel as concerned as I am. Innocent people are getting hurt just because of the religion they practice. I don’t think it is right and I hope you don’t either. METHODOLOGY October 5, 2012 I received my project October 17, 2012 I searched â€Å"religion conflict in the Middle East† on Google and got some information. October 20, 2012 I got some more information on my topic off of Google. October 20, 2012 I wrote my thesis and got more information for my report. October 27, 2012 I started my report and my backboard. October 28, 2012 I finished my report and typed it up. October 28, 2012 I put my papers and pictures on my backboard. October 29, 2012 I completed my project. Religion gives each person the chance to express how they feel about the world. There are three dominant religions in the Middle East that contribute to conflict. They are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Islam is a religion of peace. Judaism stands for peace, equality, and love. Christianity is a religion of peace and love. In every century of history of these religions you will find a marked rise of intolerance, violence, and war. I am concerned as to why the Middle East has so much conflict toward religion. The three major religions birthed there so you would think there would be less conflict in this area. I feel bad that innocent people get hurt just because of the religion they practice. Christians in Arab states suffer from perspective from Muslim leadership. They believe that Christians should be second-class citizens or not be able to profess their faith. Why shouldn’t anyone be able to freely express themselves through religion? I would want to be able to let peopl e know who I worship. Even when you try to impose your will to another religious group there is trouble. In Lebanon Sunni and Shia Muslims and Christians attempted to impose their will on two other religious groups. It ended up in civil war. It’s like they don’t even want to be cordial with one another. There were short periods of time when Christians got along with Muslims, Jews got along with Christians, and Muslims lived peacefully among Jews. Too bad that didn’t last long. It would have been nice to see everyone getting along. Jews in Israel and the occupied territories attacked and harassed non-Jews. They lived on the

To what extent, and in what ways, has the constant process of Essay

To what extent, and in what ways, has the constant process of enlargement, impacted on the EU politics and policy process - Essay Example The above issue is discussed in this paper; emphasis is given on the value of enlargement as a tool for strengthening the political and economic position of EU; the impact of enlargement on various EU politics and processes is also examined taking into consideration the fact that enlargement is a demanding process requiring a long period of preparation and being related to certain risks – especially because of the different political, social and economic patterns of European countries. It is proved that the enlargement processes developed in the European Union up today have all affected, more or less, the EU politics and processes; however, among them, it is the fifth enlargement process which most influenced EU politics and policies. For the above reason, the fifth enlargement, which developed in two phases, in 2004 and 2007, is extensively discussed in this paper using the literature published in the particular field. When the European Union was first established – in itially, as a European Community – in 1957 (Treaty of Rome), no term was set regarding the development of a Community regional policy (Bache 31). The reference to economic activities, which would be initiated by the entire member states –jointly – could be possibly, regarded as such policy, even not clearly. Through the decades, it was made clear that the achievement of the targets of the Union would be a challenging task. For this reason, the need for its expansion was through to be unavoidable – a practice which was proved particularly helpful towards the development and the strengthening of European Union so that to become a major force in the global market. In its initial form, the European Union had 6 states – today, its members are estimated to 27, as a result of 5 enlargements. The specific processes have been used in order to increase the power of EU within the international community but also in order to promote integration across the Euro pean Union. Among these enlargements the one which is most important is the fifth one developed into two phases: the first phase took place in 2004 and the second in 2007. Through the fifth enlargement – a process that has been characterized as the most important strategic decision of the EU in the 21st century (Europa, Enlargement 2011) – the European Union was significantly expanded acquiring 12 new members (Europa, Enlargement 2011). The criteria and the terms of enlargement – as one of the European Union’s key processes – are included in the ‘article 49 of the Treaty of the European Union’ (Europa, Enlargement 2011). In accordance with the above article, the key priority of the enlargement process is to ensure that the applicant countries are adequately prepared so that to meet their obligations – as stated by the relevant EU rules; of course, the legislative, political and social characteristics of each candidate country ar e taken into consideration when these processes are developed. However, in any case, it needs to be ensured that the candidate countries will be able to respond to their obligations – as members of the Union – and to align their policies/ rules with those of the Union (Europa, Enlargement 2011). At this point, it would be necessary to refer briefly to the history of enlargements

Advanced financial accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Advanced financial accounting - Essay Example The use of Fair value of in the UK’s Financial Reporting Standards appears to take the position of the US Academics which is conservative in character. This is supported by the statement of The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) which stated that the UKs Accounting Standards Board (ASB) has put itself in a potentially serious conflict with the International Accounting Standards Board over the use of fair value.1 ACCA reported the response the IASB’s discussion paper ‘Fair Value Measurements’, where the ASB made clear it rejection of much of the underlying rationale of the IASB’ paper’s proposals. The ASB seemed to have asserted that the use of the US approach to fair value was not appropriate in Europe. While the US standard SFAS 1572 could useful as a methodology to know market-based exit prices, as admitted by the ASB, the UK board is not fully convince that the assumption that fair value3 should necessarily be equated with exit value.4 ASB does not also accept to have a ‘one size fits all’ approach to fair valuation as it suggested instead ‘standard by standard’ basis. It also criticized the statement â€Å"that fair value should always be assessed from the perspective of a market participant, rather than the entity† as it asserted more prominence to be given that would address the importance of entity-specific measures.5 Given the position taken by the ASB in its statement or comment concerning the fair value accounting, it is doubtful if UK will recognize the importance of fair values, with reference to international accounting standards the same way that IASB is giving the same issue in accounting. 2.2 Describes the alternative methods by which assets and liabilities could be measured, and critically assesses the performance of each method against the Qualitative Characteristics of financial information described in the ASB’s Statement of Principles (the Conceptual Framework). The

Antibacterial Properties of Compounds from S. Frutescens

Antibacterial Properties of Compounds from S. Frutescens Kabir Prema Introduction Rationale There are approximately 6.1 million people living with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome in South Africa (Unaids.org, 2014). People with HIV/Aids have a higher risk of getting secondary infections and diseases such as Tuberculosis, which is the cause of many deaths in South Africa (Tbfacts.org, 2014). About 5.5 million people in South Africa are infected with Tuberculosis (Salim S. Abdool Karim, 2009). I have chosen to research and experiment on the Sutherlandia frutescens because it has anti-bacterial and anti-HIV properties (Katerere and Eloff, 2014). I also have a keen interest in alternative medicines so researching and testing a plant with many diverse properties such as S. frutescens will be an interesting and fruitful experience for me. Hypothesis Compounds extracted from S. frutescens have antibacterial properties. Aim: To test three extraction methods (water, ethanol and acetone) on S. frutescens, to see which method will have the most effective anti-bacterial properties on two different strains of bacteria (E. coli, S. epidermidis). Research and Experimental Methodology: For this project I will rely on secondary research. Which includes research articles and information from websites on the S. frutescens, extraction methods of antibacterial compounds and statistics regarding specific diseases affecting South Africa. I will also be doing primary research such as using different extraction methods to extract the antibacterial compounds from S. frutescens. I will testing the extracts on two different strains of bacteria. Limitations The limitations that I would face in my research task would be the reliability of the research articles I used with regards to the S.frutescens. The strains of bacteria that I’m using are harmful to human beings. Review of Literature Source 1: Title: A review of the taxonomy, ethnobotany, chemistry and pharmacology of Sutherlandia frutescens (Fabaceae). Authors: B-E. van Wyk, C. Albrecht Year of publication: 2008 Summary: The article is a review of many different articles on S. frutescens. The article focuses on the chemistry and ethnopharmacology of S. frutescens. It names the ailments that S. frutescens is used to treat ailments such as urinary tract infections and HIV. It’s also used as an antibacterial and anti-inflammatory. Its has been shown that S. frutescens has been widely used as a medication by various groups in South Africa particularly the in the Western Cape. Validity: This article is review of many different articles and most of the  information is derived from other articles concerning  S. frutescens and its properties and uses. Reliability: This article is from the Journal of Ethnopharmacology, which is published on the journal publishing site elsevier.com. The journal was also reviewed by a board of editors from many  different countries. Evidence use to support conclusion: The leaves of the Sutherlandia frutescens have antibacterial properties. Recent studies on this plant have mostly focused on the anti-cancer, anti-HIV, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, analgesic and antibacterial activities. Usefulness: The article describes the many uses and properties of S. frutescens such as it’s antibacterial properties, it’s anti-inflammatory and its anti-HIV properties. The article also goes over the many uses of S. frutescens ov Limitations: The article doesn’t elaborate on much on the antibacterial activities of S.frutescens The article doesn’t show methods of extracting S.frutescens. Author Credentials: B-E. van Wyk is a professor at the University  of Johannesburg and teaches undergraduate plant taxonomy,  postgraduate taxonomy, systematics, chemosystematics of African  plant families, medical plant chemistry and ethnobotany. Source 2: Title: Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activity of Sutherlandia frutescens (Fabaceae), A Reputed Anti-HIV/AIDS Phytomedicine Authors: David R. Katerere†  and Jacobus N. Eloff* Year of publication: 2005 Summary: The article describes the extraction methods that were used to extract S.frutescens The article also describes the how the different extracts where tested on different strains of bacteria. The article is about the antibacterial and antioxidant activity of S.frutescens. The second method of extraction produced a greater yield than the first method of extraction. Validity: The first extraction method used five grams of a commercially available leaf sample of Sutherlandia frutescens (Sutherlandia/ Unwele ®). The Sutherlandia frutescens (Sutherlandia/ Unwele ®) sample was consecutively extracted three times using different substances, first with Hexane (coded SF-H), then by dichloromethane (DCM) (SF-D), then by acetone (SF-A) and finally by ethylacetate (SF-E). The second method consisted of splitting a leaf sample of a Sutherlandia frutescens into three portions weighing 5g each. The portions where portions where extracted separately twice with acetone, ethanol and water. Each extract was then dried using a rotary evaporator and weighed. The aqueous extract was then freeze dried. Reliability: S, frutescens was extracted using two different extraction methods. Evidence use to support conclusion: The total yield of all four solvents in the first method of extraction was 10.5%. In the second extraction method, acetone extracted 5.6%. Ethanol extracted 12.6% while eater extracted 17.2%. Usefulness: It’s useful as it gives methods to extract the active ingredient  from the plant. Limitations: The article doesn’t give a testing method that I can easily perform at school. Author’s Credentials David R. Katerere† : Specialist Scientist at SA MRC, Visiting  scientist at Scynexis, visiting scientist at UNINA, trainee  Pharmacist at Drug Tech Pharmacy, Chief Bioanalyst at  PAREXEL, Postdoc at University of Pretoria Jacobus N. Eloff*: Gold Medal for Science for Society  Academy for Science of South Africa (September 2012), Gold  medal of the South African Academy for Science and Art is  awarded for Scientific and Technological Achievement, Bronze  medal from the International Horticultural Society (December  2008) in recognition of the organising the World Conference on Medical and Aromatic Plants. Source 3: Title: Five Ochna species have high antibacterial activity and more  than ten antibacterial compounds Authors: Tshepiso J. Makhafola1 Jacobus N. Eloff1 Year of publication: 2011 Summary: The article is about the antibacterial activities of five Ochna species. Leaf samples where extracted using different mediums from the leaf. The extracts were tested against various strains of bacteria. Validity: The dried leaf powder was extracted with 20mL of acetone. The solution was then shaken in 50 mL centrifuge tubes and  centrifuged for 15 minutes at 4000 rpm. The extracts were  decanted through into glass vials through filter papers and the  solution was concentrated to dryness with a stream of cold air. Only clean and dry leaves were selected, the selected leaves had no blemishes or dirt. The leaves were not washed with water as the water would possibly extract some water-soluble compounds, and to limit the posibilty of fungal growth on the leaves due to the moisture left on the surface due to the water. The leaves were dried at room temperature in the dark. The leaves were then made into a fine powder, with the particles being less than 1 mm in diameter. The leaves were then stored in sealed glass bottles in the dark to reduce chemical changes in the compounds present in the leaves. Reliability: There were no competing interests the article. Evidence use to support conclusion: The percentage yield in acetone between the five species was: O. gamostigmata (8%), followed by O. pulchdra, (7.5%), O. serullata (7%) O. pretorienses and O. natalitia ((2.5%) Usefulness: This article shows different extraction methods and it also gives  a suggestion to which extraction method and solvent worked  the best to extract the particular compounds. It provides detailed  images, tables and graphs which makes it easier to view the data  that was collected. Limitations: Only gives information about on genus of plant (Ochna) and there is no information of S. frutescens. Author’s Credentials Kobus (Jacobus N) Eloff: Gold Medal for Science for Society,  Eskom award for capacity development, Gold medal of the South  African Academy for Science and Art is awarded for Scientific  and Technological Achievement, Gold Medal for Botany Tshepiso Makhafola: Attended the University of Pretoria from  2008-2010. He has skills and expertise in research, molecular  biology and biotechnology. Source 4: Title: Influence of Sutherlandia frutescens extracts on cell  numbers, morphology and gene expression in MCF-7  cells Authors: B.A. Standera, S. Maraisa, T.J. Steynberga, D. Theronb, F.  Joubertc, C. Albrechtd  and A.M. Jouberta Year of publication: 2007 Summary: The article is about the influence of S.frutescens on cell numbers, morphology and gene expression in MCF-7 cells. An extraction was made our of small twogs and leaves, the solution was then filtered. It was demonstrated that ethanolic extracts of S. frutescens inhibited multiplying of MCF-7 mammary adenocarcinoma cells. Validity: Dulbeccos minimum essential medium eagle (DMEM)  with Glutamaxâ„ ¢ (Gibco BRL, USA) †¢ Trypsin–EDTA †¢ Crystal violet DNA stain was used to determine the  number of cells. (Spectrophotometrically) †¢ Heat inactivated fetal calf serum (FCS) was used to  culture the MCF – 7 human breast cell line. †¢ Penicillin was used to culture the MCF – 7 human  breast cell line. †¢ Streptomycin was used to culture MCF – 7 human  breast cell line. †¢ Sterile cell culture flasks †¢ 96-well plates where used to house the culturing cells. †¢ MCF-7 human breast a denoma carcinoma cell line  were cultured in DMEM †¢ Cell Morphology: Two hundred and fifty thousand   MCF-7 cells were put onto heat-sterilized coverslips  in well plates and they were exposed to 1.5 mg/ml of  Sutherlandia Frutescence extract for periods of 24, 36,  48, and 72 hours at 37 °C cells where counted using a  microsceope. Reliability: Sterile culture flasks and well plates where used, the cultures  where kept at a constant temperature of 37 °C and in a  humidified atmosphere with 5% CO2, the specimens of  Sutherlandia frutescens were air dried in the shade in the  area of Murraysburg in the Karoo, to reduce the chance  degradation of the specimens. The specimens where identified  as Sutherlandia frutescens by the botany and biotechnology  department at the university of Johannesburg. 1 gram of Sutherlandia frutescens was mixed with 10ml of 70%  ethanol to produce a stock solution. After the extraction of the  Sutherlandia frutescens it was centrifuged to remove any debris  and then it was filtered twice to obtain a purified 100mg/ml  stock solution. The cells where cultured for 24 hours. Vehicle controles where  used prove the effectiveness of the Sutherladnia frutescens. The results that were obtained were statistically analysed for  significance using analysis of variance factor model. This was  then proceeded by a two-tailed Student’s t-test. Evidence use to support conclusion: The ethanol extracts of the Sutherlandia frutescens inhibited  the growth of the MCF-7 mammary adencarcenoma cells of the  period of 72 hours. 1.5 mg/ml of the Sutherlandia frutescens  ethanol extract was statistically found to reduce 50% of the  growth of MCF-7 cell over 24 hours when compared to the  vehicle-treated control. Usefulness: It shows different methods of extracting the Sutherlandia  frutescens and different substances used to extract the plant. It  also gives results that have been statistically proven. Limitations: There aren’t any tests to prove its antibacterial effectiveness. The article doesn’t mention the chemical compounds present in  the plant that prove it’s effectiveness. Author’s Credentials B.A. Stander: Department of Physiology, University of Pretoria, P.O. Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa S. Marais: Department of Physiology, University of Pretoria, P.O. Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa T.J. Steynberg: Department of Physiology, University of Pretoria, P.O. Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa D. Theron: ACGT Microarray Facility, University of Pretoria, 0002 Pretoria, South Africa F. Joubert: Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Unit, University of Pretoria, 0002 Pretoria, South Africa C. Albrecht: Cancer Association of South Africa, P.O. Box 2121, Bedfordview 2008, South Africa A.M. Joubert: Department of Physiology, University of Pretoria, P.O. Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa Source 5: Title: Antibacterial Activity of Leaf Extracts from Combretum micranthum and Guiera senegalensis (Combretaceae) Authors: Stefano Banfi, Enrico Caruso, Viviana Orlandi, Paola Barbieri,  Serena Cavallari, Paolo Viganà ², Pierangelo Clerici and Luca  Chiodaroli Year of publication: 2014 Summary: Guiera senegalensis and Combretum micranthum lwaves were  used and tested on for the presence of antibacterial compounds. Five solvents were used to extract the plant material; the solvents  were used in increasing polarity. Escherichia coli C1a and  Staphylococcus aureus MSSA were used to test the antibacterial  effectiveness of the plants. A bioautographic method was used to  monitor the antibacterial activity of the plants extracts throughout  the purification steps. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration  and Minimum Bacterial Concentration of the most purified and  active plant extracts were evaluated at the end of the procedure. Validity: Dry leaves extraction procedure: Whole leaves of C. micranthum and G. senegalensis, were dried immediately after  obtaining them from the plant in a local drying room at 40 °C. The dried leaves were then sent to Varses. Dried whole leaves  weighing 100g were poured in a 2.5 L bottle and treated with  600ml of cyclohexane (least polar solvent). After a period  of 24 hours the leaves were separated from the solvent by  means of a Buckner funnel. This procedure was repeated using  progressively more polar solvents: toluene, acetone, EtOH and  water respectively. Agar diffusion assay: Between 4-5 isolated colonies of each  strain were collected and resuspended in 5ml of PB. It was then  put onto its respective solid growth medium by means of a sterile  cotton swab. The plates were incubated at 37 °C for a set amount  of time required for each microorganism. The antibacterial effect  of the extract was measured by measuring the growth inhibition  halo. Pictures if the inhibition halos were taken using a camera to  document the findings. Reliability: Incubation temperature was kept constant at 37 °C. Evidence  of the inhibition rings were taken by means of a photo camera  and those images were later analysed. A fair test was performed  as four different methods of extraction where used, each with  increasing polarity. Evidence use to support conclusion: Cm4-P showed good activity against S. aureus and S. xylosus. Cm4-P showed some activity against Gram negative strains. Gs2-Paq was found to be more active against the Gram positive strians  compared to Cm4-P. Usefulness: Gives an example of how an extraction could be done by ordering  the solvents according to polarity. It shows how the inhibition  rings can be measured and analysed i.e. By means of taking  photographs. Limitations: The article doesn’t show extraction methods and testing methods for S. frutescens Author’s Credentials Stefano Banfi: Degree in organic chemistry in February1980 at the University of Milan, Assistant Professor in Organic Chemistry. Enrico Caruso: Graduated with a degree in organic chemistry in October 1998 from the University of Milan, Assistant Professor in Organic Chemistry, Viviana Orlandi: 1995: Degree in Biological Sciences, University of Milan discussing a thesis on Expression of oppioid receptor in primary coltures of murine cortex neurons: trasduction signal pathway and interaction with glutamate receptors. Member of the Italian Society for General Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology (SIMGBM). Paola Barbieri: 1980: Degree in Biological Science at the University of Milan, Institute of Genetics. Member of the American Society for Microbiology (ASM)Member of the Italian Society for General Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology (SIMGBM). Serena Cavallari: Paolo Viganà ²: Degree in Biological Sciences; Postgraduate Diploma in Microbiology, Doctor of Biological Sciences; Specialist in Microbiology Luca Chiodaroli: Conclusion Source 1 deals with the general usage of S.frutescens as a medicinal plant in South Africa. Source 2 deals with the antibacterial and antioxidant properties of S. frutescens. It also shows extraction methods and bacterial testing methods. Source 3 shows the antibacterial activities of the Ochna species of plants. This source gives an indication of what types of bacteria that need to be used for testing the antibacterial activities of the S. frutescens. Source 4 is about the influence of S. frutescens extract on MCF-7 cells. It has a good indication of an extraction method that can be used. Source 5 is about the antibacterial activity of leaf exracts from Combretum micranthum and Guiera senegalensis. It gives an example of an extraction method that can be used for S. frutescens. All the sources deal with extraction method that can be used for certain plants. Not all the articles deal with the extraction methods and testing of S. frutescens. References: B-E. van Wyk and C. Albrecht, 2008. A review of the taxonomy,  ethnobotany, chemistry and pharmacology of Sutherlandia  frutescens (Fabaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, [Online].  119, 621-629. Available at: http://def-sa.com/def/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/A-review-of-the-taxonomy-ethnobotany-chemistry-and-pharmacology.pdf [Accessed 20 April 2014]. David R. Katerere†  and Jacobus N. Eloff . 2005. Antibacterial  and Antioxidant Activity of Sutherlandia frutescens (Fabaceae), A  Reputed Anti-HIV/AIDS Phytomedicine. [ONLINE] Available at:  http://def-sa.com/def/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Antibacterial-and-Antioxidant-Activity-of1.pdf. [Accessed 06 April 14].   Tshepiso J. Makhafola and Jacobus N. Eloff. (2011). Five  Ochna species have high antibacterial activity and more than  ten antibacterial compounds. South African Journal of Science  [online]. 108, 689.Available From:http://www.sajs.co.za/five-ochna-species-have-high-antibacterial-activity-and-more-ten-antibacterial-compounds/makhafola-tshepiso-eloff-jacobus. St, er, B., Marais, S., Steynberg, T., Theron,  D., Joubert, F., Albrecht, C. and Joubert, A. (2007). Influence  of Sutherlandia frutescens extracts on cell numbers,  morphology and gene expression in MCF-7 cells. Journal of  ethnopharmacology, 112(2), pp.312318. Banfi, S., Caruso, E., Orlandi, V., Barbieri, P., Cavallari,  Ã‚  S., Vigano, P., Clerici, P. and Chiodaroli, L. (2014). Antibacterial Activity  of Leaf Extracts from Combretum micranthum and Guiera senegalensis  (Combretaceae). Research Journal of Microbiology, [online] 9(2), pp.66-81. Salim S. Abdool Karim, S. (2009). HIV infection and tuberculosis in South Africa: an urgent need to escalate the public health response. Lancet, [online] 374(9693), p.921. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2803032/ [Accessed 14 May. 2014]. Fritz Lherisson, F. (2014). South Africa. [online] Unaids.org. Available at: http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/southafrica/ [Accessed 16 May. 2014].

A Need for Change in the Power Structure

Through historical events, we can be taught that the power structure of the western civilization changed according to the needs of the people and the nation at that specific point of time and place. In the course of western civilization, there have been many forms of governments, rulers, and ruling systems such as democracy, monarchy, and feudalism, just to name a few. Historical specificity of power structures is evident in places like Ancient Athens, Pre-Augustan and Augustan Rome, and the Medieval Europe. Athens developed their political and institutional unit called polis, which started as an oligarchy hidden behind nominal democracy but was then taken over by short-lived tyranny. In 31B. C. to 14 A. D. , Augustus formed a constitutional monarchy, promulgated to deal with civil wars and to the dissatisfaction of the people at that time. During his reign, this type of ruling system helped him established a strong and expanding Roman Empire. Furthermore, around 600 A. D. to 1300 A. D. in Medieval Europe, feudalism first appeared. It was first thought of that feudalism was the answer to the decentralization of the power in the state. However, feudalism made the nation vulnerable against invasions from Vikings and Magyars. In the essence, the power structures were the responses to the needs at the time. In Athens during the late seventh century B. C. was a time of turmoil for the Athenians. Although the first law code embodied the idea of what democracy is, which meant that the law belongs to the citizens, unfortunately in reality was not so. Athens was mostly governed by aristocrats, and that meant these aristocrats got the best lands, interpreted imposed the laws, and met in assemblies to govern the polis. This caused economic mayhem for the poor peasants. These deprived peasants had to borrow money, and they had to put up their land or pledge himself or his family members as collaterals. In many times, due to the exorbitant fees pressed on these peasants, they end up unable to pay back the loan hence they were sold off as slaves. Furthermore, their land was confiscated and their annual yield was taken in for larger in percentages. The economic and social condition worsened by the Aristocrats rules therefore change was necessary. In 546 B. C. , Pisistratus who was an exiled aristocrat returned to Greece and became a tyrant in the Athenian polis. During Pisistratus’s rule, power of aristocrats declined since he showed supported and brought forth reforms the common people. Although a tyrant by name, Pisistratus actually promoted the idea of equality among Athenian men. By this change in structure of power, the polis prospered and became the beauty that was Greece before, but then threats were just looming around. After Pisistratus death, Hippias took over. Hippias was the emblem of a typical tyrant, who ruled harshly and extravagantly. Change was needed once again. Hippias was overthrown and in 508 B. C. an aristocrat named Cleisthenes came along with an idea that all Athenian citizens have voice and proper representation in the government. This was then was true democracy meant, and in it, he instituted ostracism, which is a system of public voting where a person who receives the most votes went into exile. The goal of it was to get rid of potentially dangerous politicians, such as Hippias. The form of government, the â€Å"Democracy† that Cleisthenes formed and its institution of ostracism were the keys in solving problem similar to that of menace posed by a tyrant like Hippias. A tyrant does not only abuse the economic and financial power of a country but it also divest it citizens of their pride and dignity. Athens certainly succeeded in its changes in power structure to fit its needs at the time, but not everyone has the same problem to solve. (McKay, 69-70). In Rome, before Augustus came to power, there were serious political issues that had to be solved. The republic constitution met the needs of a simple city-state, but it was inadequate for the expanding Rome Empire. New administration had to be established and its growth had to be kept under control. A constitution set a series of checks and balances and ensures distinct separation of powers. In their political system, the most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority in the form of an â€Å"imperium† or more popularly termed as â€Å"military command†. These consuls had to work with the senate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, but grew in size and power over time. Also, war proceeds, mercantilism in the new provinces, and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the wealthy thus, forming a new class of merchants who were the equestrians. Senators became rich and greedy, repeatedly blocking land reforms and controlled violent gangs that intimidated the electorate through violence. On the other hand, Roman soldiers who were initially small-scale farmers and are away from home long enough to maintain their land, started to rely on slaves. This method therefore increases the need for slaves and at the same time brought about higher purchasing powers by these soldiers who earn from both their farms and at the same time as soldiers in war. This also encourages more free trade which unfortunately includes slaves. As time passed; these soldiers and the general public at that became dissatisfied and discontented with the system. The military reforms of Gaius Marius resulted in soldiers often having more loyalty to their commander than to the city and to the State itself, therefore a powerful military general could take over the city through a coup d’etat and hold the Senate in ransom. The Roman army was controlled by the willing and powerful general at the late republic and they were loyal to the general. Rome had to be kept under control Before Augustus, the loyalty of the Roman legions was more on the generals that led them rather than on the State. Gaius Marius, whose most influential changes in the Roman Army was called the Marian Reforms. After being elected as a consul, he directed massive army reforms in order to attract more to join the army. He did this in order to assure protection of the Romans against ant barbaric invasions. Marius loosened up the recruitment policy and the provision of numerous benefits to the soldiers. Soldiers were drawn to it since it allowed a partition of the land that they were able to conquer, wherein they can start their permanent settlements. This not only encouraged the soldiers of the Roman Army but also this played a very important role in Romanizing nearby areas yet to be under the Roman rule, therefore lessening the chance of further revolts. Most importantly, the growing number of Roman Army ensured success in battles. The luxury and benefits provided by the Marian Reforms in the Roman tightened up the loyalty of the legion to whoever that was who handled them and led them to battle. The developed a mentality that the General who piloted them towards numerous victory and have provided pieces of lands to them deserved to be followed and rather than the State. Thus the conflict begins here. Any strong General who manages to bring forth victory and more territories to the State and allot lands for the soldiers can easily take over the whole Roman Empire. Therefore it was not surprising that following Gaius Marius the next prominent person to rise into power was a tough general and commander who directed conquests, Julius Caesar. Civil wars were serious issue as well, and even though Julius Caesar held complete control during his reign, he gained massive dissatisfaction from the people for his tyrannical nature. The accumulation of discontent eventually ended up with Caesar’s assassination, and this created yet another civil conflict. Plunged in chaos and massive discontent, Rome needed someone who could solve all these problems and bring forth tangible and possible lasting changes and Augustus was the one. Augustus’s reign marked the era of the historic Pax Romana, which meant period of security, expanding economy, and order. He not only held control over the vast territory, but he expanded Rome into a Roman Empire. He ended civil war and brought peace to the people. Horace wrote, â€Å"As long as Caesar is the guardian of the state, neither civil dissension nor violence shall banish peace, nor wrath that forges swords and brings discord and misery to cities (Horace, 84). † The peace also â€Å"brought back fertile crops to the fields (Horace, 84). † In Horace’s citation, it is clear that the people of Rome were supportive of the power structure in which a Caesar or an Emperor is given the power to rule over the whole Roman Empire. In this case, Augustus ruled under Constitutional monarchy, wherein he hid his true intentions of tyranny under title princeps, and by writing an autobiography stating that he was elected or people united agreed upon his positions in government and that he was not self selecting (Augustus, 88). In the end, all the social, economic, and political turmoil called for the change in the power structure, and Augustus was the man to deliver it to his people. He restored peace after 100 years of civil war, maintained an honest government and extended the Roman Empire. The unification of Rome brought prosperity back to its cities. Augustus’ great influence to Rome started a lineage of monarchy in which the emperor assumes almost absolute power, retaining only a pretense of the Republican form of government. During the Pax Romana, after Augustus’s death, things weren’t how it used to be. Except for the five good emperors, all other emperors caused civil wars, dissatisfaction from people, barbaric invasions, economic downfall, complete monarchy, and the breakdown of the empire. Tacitus who lived after Augustus’s reign complained how the â€Å"constitution had been transformed, and that there was nothing at all left of the good old way of life [the republic life] (Tacitus, 87). He also complained that it was complete a monarchy and that people were fools for not being courageous enough to stand up against him. Tacitus’s complaint can be looked upon as the reflection of his time’s instability. Even though this may counter my argument of change in the power structure due to the needs of the time, it may not be so. Every state goes through problems and change occurs to fix those problems. The cases I have covered showed how each generations and political system solved the problems rather quickly, but also in these cases, the problems last for two centuries with an exception of five good emperors. We can interpret this as the transition from instability to stability wherein it just took Roman Empire longer time to change to fit the needs of the time. Even though, Roman Empire seemed to have settled to its stable state, it did not last forever. After the division of the Roman Empire, Medieval period came along with Charlemagne, the king of France in the 8th century. He reunited Western Europe for the first time after the Roman reign but he had complete control over the empire. The problem was created when Charlemagne left his throne to Louis the Pious, who also passed away soon after. After which, the three sons of Louis agreed to the Treaty of Verdun, which divided the empire into three parts. Civil conflicts rose from this division of land, and that made the state vulnerable to invasions from the Vikings and the Magyars. These invasions in return made the state’s power decentralized at the local level. From this, the system called feudalism came to being. Feudalism is both an agricultural and a political system where vassals swore his loyalty to the lord and in return for the vassal's loyalty, aid, and military assistance are thus given, aside from that the lord promised him protection and material support. Along with feudalism came manorialism in the rural area. Manorialism was a simpler system where farmers got protection from invasions by the soldier-lords and in return these lords were provided with manual labor by the farmers. These two systems worked together effectively since farmers’ labors created wealth for the lords, who then used that money to support their vassals. Looking at the locations of the castles built during reign of William the Conqueror, these castles were built around the borders of the country to protect themselves from the invasions and it proves that powers were localized at the time (Source 4, 133). In addition, view of the Harlech Castle built by Edward it shows us that it was built not as fancy architecture, but as a means of protection from invasions (Source3, 132). Feudalism solved common communal problems at the time, but feudalism itself created new predicaments. Feudalism became a struggle for power between the nobles and the knights who were fighting among themselves. Furthermore, additional problems came with progenitor, where only the first son received inheritance. This left all the other sons in the streets with nothing but themselves. These sons then became scoundrels and thieves, and more often brought more disagreements among them. This birth of feudalism in the eighth century France offered the richer landowners security even in the absence of laws and specific order. Through concession, proprietors who were then mostly soldiers gained substantial government power to rule over their lands under the basis of legal arrangements with other local landowners thus forming militias used for defense of their territory. In its basic cases, feudalism swathed the monarchy gaining political support and protection through these feuds run by soldiers themselves. Feudalism developed a certain code of laws, and this system of governance broadens throughout Europe and played a very dominant role in its history. With the emergence of a new civil divergence together with outside incursion, another power structure must be adapted to solve this problem, and it came from Pope Urban II. The eastern parts of Europe have been conquered by invading Turks and Muslims. This situation called for an order by Pope Urban II to create a crusade of men that will aid in recapturing the Christian lands. He had secular power along with religious powers and influence, and he created a military campaign named Crusade. Crusade began as a military campaign to reclaim the Christian lands especially the holy land, to support other Christians, and to eliminate Muslim presence from Western Europe. Pope Urban II stated that â€Å"On this account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's heralds to publish this everywhere and to persuade all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers and knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy that vile race from the lands of our friends. Therefore, almost all men, whether rich or poor, become knights of the Crusade. In return, he offered indulgence, which was free ticket to salvation. Furthermore â€Å"All who die by the way, whether by land or by sea, or in battle against the pagans, shall have immediate remission of sins. This I grant them through the power of God with which I am invested. † He not only remo ved all the trouble makers out of the state, the crusade in later campaigns proved to be economically successful. France succeeded in its changes in power structures as well due to the needs of the time. Through my evidence, I have shown that every problem is solved in later time, and we can conclude that at the time of long struggle, it is just a transition state wherein rulers must constantly seek answers and study every situation and put forth a strong plan for the State Conclusively, from evidences through historical events, there have always been shifts in power structures that have been adapted to the needs of the time. Athens changed its governing system to solve the problems of oligarchy and tyranny. Augustus solved its problems by Constitutional monarchy, and last of all, France solved its first invasion problem through feudalism and manorialism, and then solved problems created by these systems through entrance of Pope’s power with his Crusade. Some states might take longer time to make that change and some take shorter time, but in the end, needs and distinct situations of the time cause changes in the power structures and applications.

Karl Benz Essay

Karl Benz was born on 25th November 1844 in Karlsruhe, the son of an engine driver. The middle of the last century, when Benz was an apprentice, was a time of widespread fascination with the â€Å"new technology†. The first railway line in Germany from Nuremberg to Furth had been opened in 1835, only twenty years before, and in the space of just a few decades the railways, steamships and new production processes had ushered in a new era in technology, industry and everyday life. Karl Benz attended the Karlsruhe grammar school and subsequently the Karlsruhe Polytechnic. Between 1864 and 1870, he worked for a number of different firms as a draughtsman, designer and works manager before founding his first firm in 1871 in Mannheim, with August Ritter. But little money was to be made in the building materials trade and the economic convulsions of the 1870’s caused difficulties for the young company. Karl Benz now turned to the two-stroke engine, in the hope of finding a new livelihood. After two years’ work, his first engine finally sprang to life on New Year’s Eve, 1879. He took out various patents on this machine. Equally important were the contacts with new business associates, with whose assistance Benz founded a gas engine factory in Mannheim. But after only a short time he withdrew from this company since it did not give him a free enough hand for his technical experiments. Benz found two new partners and with them founded â€Å"Benz & Co., Rheinische Gasmotorenfabrik† in 1883 in Mannheim, a general partnership. Business was good and soon the production of industrial engines was being stepped up With this new financial security, Karl Benz could now set about designing a â€Å"motor carriage†, with an engine based on the Otto four stroke cycle. Unlike Daimler, who installed his engine in an ordinary carriage, Benz designed not only his engine, but the whole vehicle as well. On 29th January 1886, he was granted a patent on it and on 3rd July 1886, he introduced the first automobile in the world to an astonished public. In 1903, Karl Benz retired from active participation in his company. The next year however, he joined the supervisory board of Benz & Cie and he was a member of the supervisory board of Daimler-Benz AG from 1926, when the company was formed, until his death in 1929. In 1872, Karl Benz married Bertha Ringer, who was to be of major support to him in his work. The couple produced five children. Benz lived to witness the motoring boom and the definitive penetration of his idea in to everyday life. He died on 4th April 1929. The former Benz family residence in Ladenburg is now open to the public. The Daimler-Benz foundation, founded in 1986, has its registered office here.